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Similarly, [29] explore the use of blockchain technology in P2P energy trading to support new
business models for prosumers. Their research highlights how blockchain enables direct
communication between end-consumers and Distribution System Operators (DSOs) without the need
for traditional intermediaries. Smart contracts are employed as virtual aggregators, facilitating
transparent, distributed, and secure energy transactions. The paper also explores user-guided and
automated auction mechanisms for energy trading, where prosumers can sell excess energy at
competitive prices, benefiting both sellers and buyers. This decentralized approach to energy trading
aligns with the broader goals of sustainability and empowers prosumers by providing them greater
control over energy transactions. Blockchain’s ability to optimize DERs within VPPs has also been
explored extensively. In [30] present a novel framework that integrates blockchain with cloud
services, grid operators, and forecasting systems to enhance the real-time bidding and scheduling of
energy resources. Their multi-layered architecture leverages blockchain’s decentralized nature to
optimize DER administration, thereby improving grid stability and energy efficiency. The framework
incorporates smart meters to facilitate data exchange between participants and DERs, ensuring that
energy transactions are transparent and efficient. This study is particularly significant for its
comprehensive approach to addressing the challenges of DER management in VPPs, highlighting
how blockchain can support the real-time optimization of energy markets .