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wholesale electricity market, and the seller does not physically deliver the energy to the customer.
Instead, the energy produced by the plant is sold into the reference electricity market [11].
Under a VPPA, the customer does not physically receive the energy from the plant but continues to
receive electricity from their existing supplier. The spot market price fluctuates and differs from the
price agreed upon between the client and the seller in the VPPA. If the agreed VPPA price is lower
than the market price, the client receives the difference from the seller based on the energy produced
by the plant. Conversely, if the VPPA price is higher than the market price, the customer compensates
the seller for the difference [12].
Figure 1: A visual representation of the energy and financial transactions between a power producer, supplier, grid, and corporate
consumer under a PPA.
Additionally, the client receives green certificates, which guarantee the renewable origin of the energy
purchased through the VPPA. These certificates are crucial for companies aiming to reduce their
carbon footprint and enhance sustainability ratings [13]. VPPAs offer an optimal solution for
companies with multiple locations, as they allow the client to maintain their current electricity
supplier while meeting their renewable energy targets [14].
2.3 Energy Attribute Certificates (EACs)
Utilizing renewable energy is an important component of achieving a net zero transition. It decreases
scope 2 emissions in accordance with the Greenhouse Gas (GHG) protocol, following both statutory
regulation and voluntary reporting criteria. If an entity is unable to generate its own renewable energy
due to laws or technical challenges, or if it is not accessible for purchase, acquiring EACs becomes a
simple and environmentally-friendly option. Employing EACs is the sole reliable and provable
method to assert renewable energy usage [15].